Promoting national security and economic competitiveness will require America’s researchers to find new ways to obtain the materials that we need for many technologies. These include batteries, magnets in electric motors, catalysts, nuclear reactors and other essential carbon-free energy technologies.

Water represents one underexplored avenue of acquiring these materials. Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy’s Argonne National Laboratory have recently published a comprehensive review detailing the various mechanisms by which critical materials can be extracted from diverse water streams.

Different types of water offer different kinds of material resources, said Seth Darling, chief science and technology officer for Argonne’s Advanced Energy Technologies directorate. ​”The oceans are such a tremendous resource because the total quantities of many valuable and important materials are vast, but they are also highly dilute,” he said. ​”Wastewater has also been in need of reframing — we want people to see that wastewater is not truly waste, rather, it’s rich with all sorts of valuable stuff.”

Darling also pointed to groundwater aquifers and geothermal brines as other possible sources of valuable materials. These materials include lithium, which is increasingly in demand for electric vehicle batteries and could be used to help decarbonize our economy. ​”Lithium is in the ocean and in geothermal brines; you’d extract it differently from these two sources but it’s important to understand which is cheapest, has the smallest environmental impact, and enables secure supply chains,” Darling said. ​”For many other materials, water is underexplored as a source, and that’s something we’re paying increasingly more attention to.”

The technologies that Darling and his colleagues are exploring to extract critical materials from different types of water range from the traditional (like membranes) to the innovative (like interfacial solar steam generators).

Omar Kazi, a Ph.D. student in molecular engineering at the University of Chicago working with Darling, is studying methods to concentrate wastewater streams to recover valuable materials. ​”Getting rid of the water through evaporation is an energy-intensive and slow process,” Kazi said. ​”In geothermal brines, it can take years for water to evaporate to be able to recover the lithium that’s contained in them, which creates a huge bottleneck. The question we are asking is ​’how we can make the water evaporate faster?'”

One way to do that could be through the use of porous photothermal materials, which convert light to heat efficiently. These light absorbers act like a black T-shirt that heats up on a sunny day. That heat is transferred to the water directly at the interface with the surrounding air, significantly accelerating evaporation.

Overall, Darling noted, Argonne has rich capabilities in supply chain, life cycle and technoeconomic analyses. In addition, the laboratory specializes in the materials, chemistry and process engineering relevant to critical material extraction. This uniquely positions the lab to help achieve a more secure and circular economy of materials, especially when it comes to getting more out of water streams.

A paper based on the study, ​”Material design strategies for recovery of critical resources from water,” appeared online in Advanced Materials on March 31.

In addition to Darling and Kazi, other authors of the study include Argonne’s Wen Chen, Jamila Eatman, Feng Gao, Yining Liu, Yuqin Wang, and Zijing Xia.

This work was supported as part of the Advanced Materials for Energy-Water Systems (AMEWS) Center, an Energy Frontier Research Center funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences at Argonne National Laboratory.

Based on climate models, scientists previously estimated humans pumped 2,150 gigatons of groundwater, equivalent to more than 6 millimeters (0.24 inches) of sea level rise, from 1993 to 2010. But validating that estimate is difficult.

One approach lies with the Earth’s rotational pole, which is the point around which the planet rotates. It moves during a process called polar motion, which is when the position of the Earth’s rotational pole varies relative to the crust. The distribution of water on the planet affects how mass is distributed. Like adding a tiny bit of weight to a spinning top, the Earth spins a little differently as water is moved around.

“Earth’s rotational pole actually changes a lot,” said Ki-Weon Seo, a geophysicist at Seoul National University who led the study. “Our study shows that among climate-related causes, the redistribution of groundwater actually has the largest impact on the drift of the rotational pole.”

Water’s ability to change the Earth’s rotation was discovered in 2016, and until now, the specific contribution of groundwater to these rotational changes was unexplored. In the new study, researchers modeled the observed changes in the drift of Earth’s rotational pole and the movement of water — first, with only ice sheets and glaciers considered, and then adding in different scenarios of groundwater redistribution.

The model only matched the observed polar drift once the researchers included 2150 gigatons of groundwater redistribution. Without it, the model was off by 78.5 centimeters (31 inches), or 4.3 centimeters (1.7 inches) of drift per year.

“I’m very glad to find the unexplained cause of the rotation pole drift,” Seo said. “On the other hand, as a resident of Earth and a father, I’m concerned and surprised to see that pumping groundwater is another source of sea-level rise.”

“This is a nice contribution and an important documentation for sure,” said Surendra Adhikari, a research scientist at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory who was not involved in this study. Adhikari published the 2016 paper on water redistribution impacting rotational drift. “They’ve quantified the role of groundwater pumping on polar motion, and it’s pretty significant.”

The location of the groundwater matters for how much it could change polar drift; redistributing water from the midlatitudes has a larger impact on the rotational pole. During the study period, the most water was redistributed in western North America and northwestern India, both at midlatitudes.

Countries’ attempts to slow groundwater depletion rates, especially in those sensitive regions, could theoretically alter the change in drift, but only if such conservation approaches are sustained for decades, Seo said.

The rotational pole normally changes by several meters within about a year, so changes due to groundwater pumping don’t run the risk of shifting seasons. But on geologic time scales, polar drift can have an impact on climate, Adhikari said.

The next step for this research could be looking to the past.

“Observing changes in Earth’s rotational pole is useful for understanding continent-scale water storage variations,” Seo said. “Polar motion data are available from as early as the late 19^th century. So, we can potentially use those data to understand continental water storage variations during the last 100 years. Were there any hydrological regime changes resulting from the warming climate? Polar motion could hold the answer.”

A possible ice-free Arctic in the 2030-2050s was projected regardless of humanity’s efforts to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by Professor Seung-Ki Min and Research Professor Yeon-Hee Kim from the Division of Environmental Science and Engineering at Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) and a joint team of researchers from the Environment Climate Change Canada and Universität Hamburg, Germany. The research was published in the international journal, Nature Communications.

The term global warming has become a household name since it was first used by a climate scientist at NASA in 1988. The Earth has seen a rapid decline in the Arctic sea ice area as its temperature has increased over the past several decades. This reduction in Arctic sea ice has induced the acceleration of Arctic warming, which is suggested to contribute to the increased frequency of extreme weather events in mid-latitude regions.

To predict the timing of Arctic sea ice depletion, the research team analyzed 41 years of data from 1979 to 2019. By comparing the results of multiple model simulations with three satellite observational datasets, it was confirmed that the primary cause of the decline is attributed to ‘human-made greenhouse gas emissions’. Greenhouse gas emissions resulting from human fossil fuel combustion and deforestation have been the primary drivers of Arctic sea ice decline over the past 41 years, while the influence of aerosols, solar and volcanic activities has been found to be minimal. Monthly analysis found that increased greenhouse gas emissions were reducing Arctic sea ice all year round, regardless of season or timing, although September exhibited the smallest extent of sea ice reduction.

Furthermore, it was revealed that climate models used in previous IPCC predictions generally underestimated the declining trend of sea ice area, which was taken into account to adjust the simulation values for future predictions. The results showed accelerated decline rates across all scenarios, most importantly confirming that Arctic sea ice could completely disappear by the 2050s even with reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. This finding highlights for the first time that the extinction of Arctic sea ice is possible irrespective of achieving ‘carbon neutrality.’

The accelerated decline of Arctic sea ice, faster than previously anticipated, is expected to have significant impacts not only on the Arctic region but also on human societies and ecosystems worldwide. The reduction of sea ice can result in more frequent occurrences of extreme weather events such as severe cold waves, heat waves, and heavy rainfalls all across the globe, with the thawing of the Siberian permafrost in the Arctic region possibly intensifying global warming further. We may witness terrifying scenarios, which we have seen only in disaster movies, unfold right before our eyes.

Professor Seung-Ki Min, who led the study, explained, “We have confirmed an even faster timing of Arctic sea ice depletion than previous IPCC predictions after scaling model simulations based on observational data.” He added, “We need to be vigilant about the potential disappearance of Arctic sea ice, regardless of carbon neutrality policies.” He also expressed the importance of “evaluating the various climate change impacts resulting from the disappearance of Arctic sea ice and developing adaptation measures alongside carbon emission reduction policies.”

The study was funded by the National Research Foundation of Korea (Mid-Career Researcher program).

After years of intense drought and diminishing groundwater, California just saw its greatest year-over-year water gains in two decades, according to data from the GRACE-FO (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On) satellite mission, a partnership between NASA and the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ). This past winter’s bonanza of atmospheric rivers alleviated some of the water deficit that the state incurred during periods of drought over the last 10 years, which included the three driest years on record in California.

Think of the state’s Central Valley region (outlined in yellow, above) as a giant swimming pool: GRACE-FO measurements include all the water contained in the lakes, rivers, soil, snowpack, and underground aquifers within that region. Between October 2022 and March 2023, storms provided enough water to raise the amount of water within the “swimming pool” by about 20 inches (about 500 millimeters). That’s about twice as much as the average winter water gain since satellite-based water storage measurements began in 2002 with the first GRACE mission.

While surface water basins are filling, underground stores of fresh water (aquifers) that are tapped for irrigation and other needs could take years to fully recharge. “One good winter of rain and snow won’t make up for years of extreme drought and extensive groundwater use,” said Felix Landerer, GRACE-FO project scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. The GRACE-FO team will continue to track how California’s water storage evolves through the summer after the snowpack melts and water levels in the state’s lakes, rivers, and reservoirs start to recede during drier weather.

The observations were made possible through the unique sensing approach taken by both GRACE missions. As water moves around – in the form of ocean currents, falling rain, shifting groundwater, ice, and so on – it alters the planet’s mass near the surface, which changes Earth’s gravitational pull ever so slightly. GRACE-FO measures these subtle changes, enabling researchers to estimate changes in the total volume of water in an area.

Like its predecessor, the GRACE-FO mission consists of two identical satellites that fly one behind the other. As the lead satellite flies over an area with greater mass – such as an area with more water than another region – the slight change in gravity tugs it forward, increasing the distance between the two satellites. Microwave and laser instruments aboard the spacecraft precisely measure the minute distance changes between the two, revealing details about the overall mass of water that caused those changes.

More About the Mission

GRACE (2002-2017) was a joint partnership between NASA and the German Aerospace Center, Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt. JPL managed the GRACE mission and manages the GRACE-FO mission for NASA’s Earth Science Division in the Science Mission Directorate in Washington. GRACE-FO is a collaboration between NASA and GFZ. Caltech in Pasadena, California, manages JPL for NASA.

More information on GRACE and GRACE-FO can be found here:

https://grace.jpl.nasa.gov/

https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/

News Media Contacts

Andrew Wang / Jane J. Lee

Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif.

626-379-6874 / 818-354-0307

[email protected] / [email protected]

Jordan Christian, a postdoctoral researcher, is the lead author of the study, “Global projections of flash drought show increased risk in a warming climate,” published today in Nature Communications Earth and Environment.

“In this study, projected changes in flash drought frequency and cropland risk from flash drought are quantified using global climate model simulations,” Christian said. “We find that flash drought occurrence is expected to increase globally among all scenarios, with the sharpest increases seen in scenarios with higher radiative forcing and greater fossil fuel usage.”

Radiative forcing describes the imbalance of radiation where more radiation enters Earth’s atmosphere than leaves it. Like burning fossil fuels, these activities are among the most significant contributors to climate warming. The changing climate is expected to increase severe weather events from storms, flash flooding, flash droughts and more.

“Flash drought risk over cropland is expected to increase globally, with the largest increases projected across North America and Europe,” Christian said.

“CMIP6 models projected a 1.5 times increase in the annual risk of flash droughts over croplands across North America by 2100, from the 2015 baseline of a 32% yearly risk in 2015 to 49% in 2100, while Europe is expected to have the largest increase in the most extreme emissions scenario (32% to 53%), a 1.7 times increase in annual risk,” he said.

Jeffrey Basara, an associate professor in the School of Meteorology in the College of Atmospheric and Geographic Sciences and the School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Sciences in the Gallogly College of Engineering, is Christian’s faculty advisor and study co-author. Basara is the executive associate director of the hydrology and water security program and leads OU’s Climate, Hydrology, Ecosystems and Weather research group. The researchers have been investigating ways to improve flash drought identification and prediction since 2017, with multiple papers published in the Journal of Hydrometeorology, Environmental Research Letters and Nature Communications.

“This study continues to emphasize that agricultural producers, both domestic and abroad, will face increasing risks associated with water availability due to the rapid development of drought. As a result, socioeconomic pressures associated with food production, including higher prices and social unrest, will also increase when crop losses occur due to flash drought,” Basara said.

Is there enough lithium in the United States to fulfill the made-in-America requirements of the Inflation Reduction Act’s tax incentive programs for new electric vehicles? The International Energy Agency projects that the world will need 1,063 kilotons of lithium in 2040. That’s 48 times the volume of lithium used in EVs and electricity storage in 2020. Where will it come from? Our guest today is Jack Lifton, a physical chemist who has worked for the past 60 years on the purification of rare metals for the electronics and energy storage industries. He is the co-chairman of the Critical Minerals Institute, an international professional organization focused on battery and technology materials, and an advisor to One World Lithium, a lithium extraction technology company. One World Lithium has developed a lithium carbonation process that Jack suggests can produce more battery-grade material than more heat- and pressure-intensive approaches.

Now that we clearly see the depth of the climate crisis, lithium — the basis for most batteries used in electric vehicles — might be called the most critical mineral on the planet. China currently dominates the extraction and processing of lithium, and has locked up access to lithium and other critical minerals sources in parts of Africa and Latin America. Jack argues that the United States needs to rethink its industrial strategy to focus on STEM skills and low-impact manufacturing processes to make the turn from fossil fuels to electrification, including finding equitable partnerships with countries in the Global South that hold large reserves of lithium, cobalt, and other critical minerals. You can learn more about Jack Lifton and the Critical Minerals Institute at criticalmineralsinstitute.com and follow his regular columns at investorintel.com.

Of all these factors, weather is the one that most people would cite as being beyond human control. However, a new study out of the UK and Australia suggests this may not be the case.

Engineers from Aston University, Birmingham, and the University of South Australia (UniSA) have calculated the potential cost savings for builders using modular production techniques where much of the construction happens offsite in controlled conditions.

Buildings are produced in modules in a factory, using the same materials and building codes, but completed in about half the time, with less waste and no building delays due to poor weather.

The researchers produced a cost model that estimated the impact of weather by season on each building activity, including portions of the build (such as bathroom pods) up to the entire structure.

The savings come in at approximately AUD$40,000 (£21,000) on a build worth $6.4 million (£3.4m). This 0.6% saving may initially seem minor but takes on significant meaning in the current climate where average construction profit margins are just 4.2%.

The findings are published in the International Journal of Sustainable Building Technology and Urban Development.

Co-author of the paper Dr Ki Pyung Kim, a senior lecturer in STEM at UniSA, says weather is often identified as one of the top causes for delays and subsequent cost increases in the building industry, affecting 45% of projects worldwide.

“By removing many of the onsite activities and replacing them with modules built offsite, builders can minimise construction delays caused by weather, thereby keeping the costs from blowing out,” Dr Kim says.

Incessant rain in Australia’s eastern states throughout 2022 led to construction costs ballooning, according to the Property Council of Australia, exposing builders to unbudgeted increases and heavy losses.

However, rainfall is the not the only key weather pressure for the construction industry.

Global warming is expected to push temperatures up worldwide, including in Australia, making working conditions more difficult on construction sites, the study authors point out.

“There are many pressures on the construction industry right now, including lack of skilled labour, reductions in profit margins, lack of sustainable materials and low productivity. The financial implications of weather are rarely considered except in extreme cases as the client normally bears the cost,” Dr Kim says.

While modular construction techniques have several benefits — including faster builds and a more controlled working environment which protects high-quality materials from the weather — there are some drawbacks: a limited supply chain and lack of flexibility in both design and supply. The upfront costs of modular components are also expensive, but this needs to be weighed up against losses incurred by weather holdups.

“The global housing sector is dominated by traditional construction methods, but the industry is approaching a crisis point — particularly in relation to a skills shortage — that may force a change to modular and other offsite techniques,” Dr Kim says.

“The Federal Government has set a target of delivering one million affordable homes over five years from 2024. To ensure this target is met, Infrastructure Australia has mandated modular construction for 80% of social housing projects by 2030.”

Construction costs are typically between 43 and 46% of overall costs, which is why much of the existing research focuses on this area.

“When working in a factory environment there is a more protected and controlled atmosphere, and this will improve worker welfare, productivity and reduce health and safety costs, with fewer loss of workdays due to ill health and accident.”

Dr Kim says that the potential cost saving will vary, depending on where the project is built, when the project is started and how long the build is.

In the study, researchers collected soil samples from across Europe in a wide range of temperatures, from minus 3.1 to 18.3 degrees Celsius. The samples revealed that microorganisms in soils — such as bacteria and fungi — are strongly adapted to their local climate when it comes to growth and respiration. However, the researchers surprisingly demonstrated that microorganisms can adapt to temperature changes. The organisms can even benefit from these changes.

“Despite decades of scientific pondering, researchers have not been able to determine whether microorganisms can adapt to warming, and if they do. We can now confirm that this is the case, and that the organisms can actually mitigate climate warming,” says Carla Cruz Paredes, a biology researcher at Lund University.

The new study, published in the scientific journal Applied and Environmental Microbiology, also reveals that groups of microorganisms react differently to warming. Bacteria and fungi differ in their sensitivity to temperature changes, with bacteria being more sensitive than fungi. Moreover, microbial growth is more sensitive to temperature changes than respiration. These differences in temperature sensitivity have important implications for predictions of future carbon losses and storage, as well as how the soil is affected by climate warming.

“The outcome of these varying sensitivities to growth and respiration at different temperatures, and between bacteria and fungi, will impact the carbon balance between the soil and the atmosphere, and thus the soil’s feedback on climate warming,” says Carla Cruz Paredes.

The study highlights the importance of accurately representing microbial responses to climate warming in models of soil carbon content. The research also shows that ecological responses from the Earth’s microorganisms will play a key role in regulating the planet’s climate.

“Climate warming is one of the biggest threats to our environment. To mitigate global warming, it is necessary to enhance the soil’s ability to store or sequester carbon and reduce carbon emissions into the atmosphere. This study is a step forward in providing better predictions for the assessments of the UN’s climate panel,” says Carla Cruz Paredes.